lion

The lion (Panthera leo) is a mammal of the family Felidae and one of four "big cats" in the genus Panthera. The lion is the second largest cat, after the tiger. The male lion, easily recognized by his mane, weighs between 150-225 kg (330-500 lb) and females range 120-150 kg (260-330 lb) [1]. In the wild, lions live for around 10–14 years, while in captivity they can live over 20 years. While once found throughout much of Africa, Asia and Europe, it is presently encountered in the wild only in Africa and in India (where it is found only in the Sasan-Gir National Park).

Population and distribution

In historic times the habitat of lions spanned much of Eurasia, ranging from Portugal to India, and all of Africa. Around the beginning of the current era they died out from Western Europe and since the 2nd century, the lion has disappeared from Europe. Between the late 19th century and early 20th century they also became extinct from North Africa and Middle East. Now, most of the population lives in eastern and southern Africa, and their numbers are rapidly decreasing, estimated as between 16,000 and 30,000 living in the wild, down from an estimated 100,000 in the early 1990s. The population is even more in jeopardy, because the remaining populations are often geographically isolated from each other, which causes inbreeding. [2]

The Asiatic Lion (subspecies Panthera leo persica), which in historical times ranged from Turkey to India through Iran (Persia) and from Caucasus to Yemen, was eradicated from Palestine by the Middle Ages and from most of the rest of Asia after the arrival of readily available firearms in the 18th century. In Iran the last lion was shot in 1942. The subspecies now survives only in and around the Gir Forest of northwestern India. About 300 lions live in a 1412 km² (558 square miles) sanctuary in the state of Gujarat, which covers most of the forest. Their numbers remain stable.

Lions had become extinct in Greece by 100 and in Caucasus, their last European outpost, in the 10th century. Other extinct subspecies are the Cape Lion, the European Cave Lion (subspecies Panthera leo spelaea) which coexisted with humans throughout the last Ice Age, and the American lion (subspecies Panthera leo atrox), a close relative of the European cave lion (not to be confused with the mountain lion or puma).

Habitat

Lions are quiet adaptable and can be found in a variety of different habitats like deciduous forests and semideserts but they usually prefer savannas. They are never found in tropical rain forests or true deserts without any water.

Diet

Lions usually hunt at night or dawn. The prey consits mainly of large mammals, such as antelopes, gazelles, wildebeest, buffalos and zebras, but smaller animals like hares and birds are also taken occasionally. Carrion is readily taken and often recovered from other predators like hyaenas and wild dogs. In some areas lions specialise on rather untypical prey-species. So at the Savuti, were they constantly prey on young elefants and at the Linyanti were the hunt hippos (both rivers are in Chobe National Park, Botswana). Jung lions start to try hunting with an age of three month, but they are succesfull hunters not until they are two years old. Lions can reach celerites about 60 km/h, but they are not very arduous, so they have to come quiet close to their prey before starting the attack. They sneak up to the victim until they reach a distance of about 30 m or less. Usually several lions work together and encircle the herd from different points. The attac is short and powerful and the lion tries to catch the victim with a fast sprint and some final leaps. The prey is usually killed by a bite into the nape or throat.

Because lions hunt in open spaces, where they are easily seen by their prey, teamwork rises the rate of succesfull hunts. Another advantage of their teamwork is, that they can defend their prey more easily against other large Predators like hyenas, which can be attracted by vultures over kilometres in open savannas. The males dont participate usually on hunting, accept very big animals like buffalos are attacked.

Social behavior

Lions are predatory carnivores who manifest two types of social organization. Some are residents, living in groups, called prides. The pride consists of related females, their cubs of both sexes, and a group of one to nine males known as a coalition who mate with the adult females. Others are nomads, ranging widely, either singly or in pairs.

Being smaller and lighter than males, lionesses are more agile and faster and do the pride's hunting, while the stronger males patrol the territory and protect the pride, for which they take the "lion's share" of the females' prey. When resting, lions seem to enjoy good fellowship with lots of touching, head rubbing, licking and purring. But when it comes to food, each lion looks out for itself. Squabbling and fighting are common, with adult males usually eating first, followed by the females and then the cubs.

Both males and females will defend the pride against intruders. Typically, males will not tolerate outside males, and females will not tolerate outside females. Males are expelled from the pride or leave on their own when they reach maturity.

Lions do not have a specific time of year where they mate.

Reproduction and sexuality

The lions mate over long periods of time, frequently copulating twenty to forty times a day. During a mating bout, which could last several days, the couple are likely to forgo hunting. At times the female may couple with other males in the pride, giving rise to the possibility of different cubs in the same litter having different fathers. In captivity, Lions reproduce very well.

The gestation lasts between one hundred and one hundred twenty days, and the female gives birth to a litter of one to four cubs. The females in a pride will synchronize their reproductive cycles so that they cooperate in the raising and suckling of the young, who suckle indiscriminately from any or all of the nursing females in the pride. Cubs are weaned after six to seven months. In the wild, competition for food is fierce, and as many as 80% of the cubs will die before the age of two.

When a new male (or a coalition) takes over a pride and ousts the previous master(s), the conquerors often kill any remaining cubs. This is explained by the fact that the females would not become fertile and receptive until the cubs grow up or die. The male lions reach maturity at about 3 years of age and are capable of taking over another pride at 4-5 years old. They begin to age (and thus weaken) at around 8. This leaves a short window for their own offspring to be born and mature — the fathers have to procreate as soon as they take over the pride. Sometimes a female may defend her and the ousted male's children from the new master, but such actions are rarely successful, as he usually kills all the previous top male's cubs less two years old.^[2]

Observers have reported that both males and females may interact homosexually.^[3][4] Male lions pair-bond for a number of days and initiate homosexual activity with affectionate nuzzling and caressing, leading to mounting and thrusting. In the wild, about 8% of mountings will be with other males, while female pairings are held to be fairly common in captivity.

Physical characteristics

The male lion, easily recognized by his mane, can weigh between 150-225 kg (330-500 lb), but usually most males average around 186 kg (410 lb) and females range from 120-150 kg (260-330 lb)^[5], and average around 125 kg (275 lb). In the wild, lions live for around 10–14 years, while in captivity they can live over 20 years.

Manes

The first lions are presumed to have been maneless. Until around 10,000 years ago, maneless forms seem to have persisted in Europe, and possibly the New World. The maned form may have appeared c. 320,000–190,000 years ago. This maned form may have had a selective advantage that enabled it to expand to replace the range of earlier maneless forms throughout Africa and western Eurasia by historic times.^[6] The mane has evolved due to sexually selective pressure driving the trait to an exaggerated point where it no longer serves any other function. The trait has reached the point where cost of maintaining the mane has begun to outweigh its benefits. In fact, lions with particularly large manes often have trouble with thermoregulation. ^[7]

In the past scientists believed that the "distinct" subspecific status of some subspecies could be justified by their external morphology, like the size of their mane. This morphology was used to identify them, like the Barbary lion and Cape lion. However, now it is known that various extrinsic factors influence the colour and size of a lion’s mane, like the ambient temperature.^[8] The cooler ambient temperature in e.g. European and North American zoos can result in heavy mane. Therefore, the heavy mane is an inappropriate marker for identifying subspecies.^[9][10]

Maneless lions have been reported in Senegal. As well as having an inherited component, the presence, absence and degree of mane is also associated with sexual maturity and testosterone production. Castrated lions have minimal manes. The original male white lion from Timbavati was also maneless. Manelessness is also found in inbred lion populations; inbreeding also resutls in poor fertility. A heavy mane may provide an indicator of a lion's genetic and physical health. It may also afford him some protection in fights. In some animal species, females show a preference for males with better outward displays of fertility and vigour. It is possible that lionesses more actively solicit mating with heavily maned lions in prides led by a coalition of 2 or 3 males, though there seem to be no published studies.

Evolution

The oldest fossil record of a lion is known from Laetoli in Tanzania and is perhaps 3,5 Millionen years old. 700.000 years ago Panthera leo appeared in europe for the first time with the subspecies Panthera leo fossilis at Isernia in Italy. From this lion derived the later Cave lion (Panthera leo spelea), which appears about 300.000 years ago. During the upper Pleistocene the lion spread to Noth- an South-America, and developed here into Panthera leo atrox, the American lion.^[11]

Lions were common in nothern Eurasia and America during the upper pleistocene, but died out there at the end of the last glaciation, about 10.000 years ago.

Taxonomy

Subspecies

The major differences between lion subspecies are location, mane appearance, size and distribution. However some of the forms listed below are debatable. Genetic evidence suggests that all modern lions derived from one common ancestor only circa 55,000 years ago. Therefore most sub-Saharan lions could be considered a single subspecies Panthera leo leo.

Most scientists today recognise subspecies (not all named here are considered valid by all scientists).^[12]

• Panthera leo azandica - North East Congo lion.
• Panthera leo bleyenberghi - Katanga lion or Southwest African lion. Zimbabwe, Angola, Katanga (Zaire).
• Panthera leo europaea - European lion. Extinct around 100 due to persecution and over-exploitation, though may have been Panthera leo persica. Inhabited the Balkans, the Italian Peninsula, southern France and the Iberian Peninsula. It was a very popular object of hunting among Romans, Greeks and Macedonians.
• Panthera leo goojratensis - Indian Lion.
• Panthera leo hollisteri - Congo lion.
• Panthera leo krugeri - South African lion or Southeast African lion. Transvaal.
• Panthera leo leo (P.l.berberisca) - Barbary lion; extinct at least in the wild and was believed to be extinct in captivity. This was the largest of the lion subspecies, which ranged from Morocco to Egypt. The last wild Barbary lion was killed in Morocco in 1922 due to excessive hunting. Barbary lions were kept by Roman emperors to take part in the gladiator arenas. Roman notables, including Sulla, Pompey, and Julius Caesar, often ordered the mass slaughter of Barbary lions - up to 400 at a time. [3]
• Panthera leo melanochaita - Cape lion; extinct in 1860.
• Panthera leo massaicus - Massai lion.
• Panthera leo maculatus - Marozi. Status as subspecies is unconfirmed. Distinguishable from other subspecies by its spotted coat. Thought to be extinct since 1931. May have been a natural leopard/lion hybrid.
• Panthera leo nubica - East African lion.
• Panthera leo persica - Asiatic lion or South Asian lion. 350 currently exist in and near the Gir Forest of India. Once widespread from Turkey, across the Middle East, to Pakistan, India and even Bangladesh, but large prides and daylight activity made it easier to poach than tigers or leopards.
• Panthera leo roosevelti - Abyssinian lion.
• Panthera leo somaliensis - Somali lion.
• Panthera leo senegalensis - West African lion, or Senegal lion. Western Africa.
• Panthera leo verneyi - Kalahari lion. Distinct behaviour and anatomy has been observed in this subspecies.

Besides these subspecies there are also some prehistoric ones. ^[13]

• Panthera leo atrox - American Lion or North American cave lion, about 35,000 to 10,000 years ago.
• Panthera leo fossilis - Early Middle Pleistocene European primitive cave lion, about 500,000 years ago.
• Panthera leo sinhaleyus - Sri Lanka lion or Ceylon lion.
• Panthera leo spelaea - European cave lion, Eurasian cave lion or Upper Pleistocene European cave lion (300,000 to 10,000 years ago).^[14]
• Panthera leo toscana - Tuscany lion - European primitive cave lion, was present around 1.6 million years ago.
• Panthera leo vereshchagini - East Siberian or Beringian cave lion
• Panthera leo youngi - North-Eastern Pleistocene China cave lion, 350,000 years ago.

Variations

A number of natural variations have been observed in the lion populations. Some of these have been encouraged by captive breeding.

White lions

Main article: White lion

Although rare, white lions are occasionally encountered in Timbavati, South Africa. Their unusual color is due to a recessive gene. A white lion has a disadvantage when it comes to hunting: it can be given away by its color, unlike the regular lion which blends in with its surroundings. White lions are born almost pure white without the normal camouflaging spots seen in lion cubs. Their colour gradually darkens to cream or ivory colour (known as blonde).

Cross-breeding lions with other big cat species

Further information: panthera hybrid, liger and tigon

Lions have also been known to breed with tigers (most often Amur and Bengal) to create hybrids called ligers and tigons. They have also been crossed with leopards to produce leopons and jaguars to produce jaglions. The marozi is reputedly a spotted lion or a naturally occurring leopon, while the Congolese spotted lion is a complex lion/jaguar/leopard hybrid called a lijagulep. Such hybrids were once commonly bred in zoos, but this is now discouraged due to the emphasis on conserving species and subspecies. Hybrids are still bred in private menageries and in zoos in China.

The liger is a cross between a male lion and a tigress. Because the lion sire passes on a growth-promoting gene, but the corresponding growth-inhibiting gene from the female lion is absent, ligers grow larger than either parent. They share physical and behavioural qualities of both parent species (spots and stripes on a sandy background). Male ligers are sterile, but female ligers are often fertile.

The less common tigon is a cross between the lioness and the male tiger. Because the male tiger does not pass on a growth-promoting gene and the lioness passes on a growth inhibiting gene, tigons are often relatively small, only weighing up to 150 kilograms (350 lb), which is about 20% smaller than lions. Like ligers, they have physical and behavioural traits from both parental species and males are sterile.

Attacks on humans

While a hungry lion may occasionally attack a human that passes near, some (usually male) lions seem to seek out human prey. Some of the more publicized cases include the Tsavo maneaters and the Mfuwe man-eater. In both cases the hunters who killed the lions wrote books detailing the lions' "careers" as man-eaters. In folklore, man-eating lions are sometimes considered demons.

The Mfuwe and Tsavo incidents did bear some similarities. The lions in both the incidents were all larger than normal, lacked manes and seemed to suffer from tooth decay. Some have speculated that they might belong to an unclassified species of lion, or that they may have been sick and could not have easily caught prey.

There have also been recorded attacks on humans by lions in captivity; tigers are statistically much more likely to attack humans in captivity. Wild lions are also much less likely to attack humans than wild tigers are.

Lions in culture

• Heracles' principal attributes are his club and the pelt of the Nemean lion which he killed barehanded.
• C.A.W. Guggisberg, in his book Simba, says the lion is referred to 130 times in the Bible, for example in 1 Peter 5:8 where the Devil is compared to a roaring lion seeking someone to devour.
• The lion can also be found in stone age cave paintings.
• Although lions are not native to China, lions appear in the art of China and the Chinese people believe that lions protect humans from evil spirits, hence the Chinese New Year Lion Dance to scare away demons and ghosts.
• The lion holds historical significance for English heraldry and symbolism. The Three Lions, was a symbol for Richard the Lionheart, and later, for England.
• The lion was adopted by the British people as their mascot together with the bulldog.
• The lion is also a popular sport mascot. It was used as the FIFA World Cup mascot held in England in 1966 and the European Football Championships in 1996. The lion again became mascot with Goleo VI for the 2006 FIFA World Cup. A British group, The Lighting Seeds (inspired by the England football team emblem) have written the song Three Lions, which is the team's nickname. The National Football League also has the Detroit Lions as one of its teams. The Macedonian national football team are known as the "Red Lions" among their fans.
• Singapore's name is the Anglicised form of the original Sanskrit-derived Malay name Singapura, which means 'Lion City'. Malay mythology describes how the founder-prince of Singapore (then called 'Temasek') sighted a strange red and black beast with a mane when he first set ashore the island. Believing it to be a lion and a good omen (although lions were not known to exist anywhere in Southeast Asia, he renamed the island Singapura. The lion features on the Singapore national coat of arms and is also the nickname of the national football team. 'Lion City' is also a common moniker for the city-state.
• Sinhalese, the term for Sri Lanka's ethnic majority, comes from the Indo-Aryan term Sinhala, meaning the lion people or people with lion blood. The central figure on the Sri Lankan national flag is a sword wielding lion.

Lions in art

Lions have been widely used in sculpture and statuary to provide a sense of majesty and awe, especially on public buildings, including:

• The Great Sphinx of Giza.
• Nelson's column in London's Trafalgar Square.
• The entrance to the Britannia Bridge crossing of the Menai Strait, Wales.
• Patience and Fortitude, the large stone lions outside the main branch of the New York Public Library, also the mascots of the New York and Brooklyn Public Library system.
• The lions outside of the entrance of The Art Institute of Chicago.
• Chinese lions are frequently used in sculpture in traditional Chinese architecture. For instance, in the Forbidden City in Beijing, China, two lion statues are seen in almost every door entrance.
• The entrance to Sigiriya, the Lion-Rock of Sri Lanka, was through the Lion Gate, the mouth of a stone Lion. The paws of the lion can still be seen today. It is one of the 7 world heritage sites in Sri Lanka.
• The Dying Lioness is a relief panel from 650 BCE, Nineveh (modern day Iraq) depicting a half-paralyzed lioness pierced with arrows. This piece currently resides at home.

Lions in literature

• The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe is the first book in the Narnia series written by C.S. Lewis. Aslan is the eponymous lion who features throughout the stories.
• The Wizard of Oz features the Cowardly Lion.
• In the Harry Potter series of books, the lion is the mascot for Gryffindor.

Lions in media

• There have been five different lions used as the mascot for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) studios, based on the mascot of Columbia University, MGM publicist Howard Dietz's alma mater. Although the five lions went by the name of Leo the Lion, the first was named Slats. Slats was trained by Volney Phifer to roar on cue, as can be seen at the beginning of MGM movies. Leo died in 1936 and is buried in Gillette, New Jersey.
• In 1966, the live-action picture Born Free appeared, based on the true-life international bestselling book of the same title. It covered the story of the Kenyan lioness Elsa, and the efforts of Joy Adamson and her game-warden husband George in training the lioness for release back into the wild.
• In 1994, Disney made a hugely successful animated feature film called The Lion King, during the height of Disney animation in the mid 90's.
• Osamu Tezuka made an anime called The White Lion about a little lion cub who grew up without parents and had to rely on his friends to survive from hunters and other prey.
• The Ghost and the Darkness (1996) is a movie set in 1898. It is based on the true story of two lions in Africa that killed 130 people over a nine month period, during the construction of a railroad bridge across the Tsavo River in what is today Kenya, Africa. The two lions, both males, were given the names 'The Ghost' and 'The Darkness' by the local natives.
• In 2005, the Kenyan lioness Kamuniak captured international attention when she adopted oryx calves, an animal species that is normally preyed upon by lions. She fought off predators and lion prides who attempted to eat her charges. Kamuniak's story was captured in the Animal Planet episode, "Heart of a Lioness".

Lions in heraldry

Main article: Lion (heraldry)

The lion is a common charge in heraldry, traditionally symbolizing bravery, valor and strength. The following positions of heraldic lions are recognized:

Lion as place names

• Leeuwarden, Netherlands
• León, Spain
• Leon, Guanajuato, Mexico
• Lviv (Lvov, Lwów), Ukraine
• Lyon, France
• Sierra Leone
• Singaraja, Bali
• Singaparna, Tasikmalaya, West Java
• Singapore
• Zalambessa, Africa
• Sigiriya, Sri Lanka

See also

• Asiatic Lion
• European lion
• Lion-baiting
• Lion taming
• Marsupial lion

References

External links (also used as reference)

• Asiatic Lion Conservation Soc.
• Lion: Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation
• ARKive - images and movies of the lion (Panthera leo)
• White Lions
• Heraldic dictionary. Positions of Beasts as Exemplified by Lions
• Lions in Jewish art
• Lion Research Center - the official website of a research group at the U. of Minnesota that has conducted extensive field research on lions and has published over 50 peer-reviewed scientific articles on lions.
• Lion Conservation Fund - A fund dedicated to the research and conservation of the lion.
• Nature Documentary: "The Vanishing Lions"
• Asiatic Lion Information Centre
• Lions Summerized Details In Urdu