cannabis

This is one of several related articles about cannabis. This article deals with the biology of the genus Cannabis. Cannabis (drug) is about marijuana, hashish and related drugs. Hemp is about cultivation for non-drug uses, and the non-drug uses themselves. See also Hemp (disambiguation).

Cannabis is a genus of flowering plant that includes one or more species. The plant is believed to have originated in the mountainous regions just north-west of the Himalayas in India, though it could also have come from Northern Africa. It is also known as hemp, although this term usually refers to varieties of cannabis cultivated for non-drug use. As a drug it usually comes in the form of dried flowers[1] (marijuana), resin (hashish), or various extracts collectively referred to as hash oil.

Species

The genus Cannabis was formerly placed with nettles in the family Urticaceae or with mulberries in the family Moraceae, but is now considered along with hops (Humulus sp.) to belong to the family Cannabaceae. All strains of Cannabis can interbreed, and produce fertile offspring, which means all known Cannabis plants satisfy one criterion for a single species type called (Cannabis sativa L.)^[1] . The current Cannabis species model is classed as:

1. Cannabis gigantea hort. -> Cannabis sativa L. subsp. sativa
2. Cannabis indica Lam. s -> Cannabis sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) E. Small & Cronquist
3. Cannabis indica Lam. var. kafiristanica Vavilov -> Cannabis sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) E.Small & Cronquist var. kafiristanica (Vavilov) E.Small & Cronquist
4. Cannabis ruderalis Janisch. -> Cannabis sativa L. subsp. spontanea Serebr.
5. Cannabis sativa L.
6. Cannabis sativa L. f. ruderalis (Janisch.) Chu -> Cannabis sativa L. subsp. spontanea Serebr.
7. Cannabis sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) E. Small & Cronquist
8. Cannabis sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) E.Small & Cronquist var. indica -> Cannabis sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) E. Small & Cronquist
9. Cannabis sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) E.Small & Cronquist var. kafiristanica (Vavilov) E.Small & Cronquist
10. Cannabis sativa L. subsp. ruderalis Janisch. -> Cannabis sativa L. subsp. spontanea Serebr.
11. Cannabis sativa L. subsp. sativa
12. Cannabis sativa L. subsp. sativa var. spontanea Vavilov -> Cannabis sativa L. subsp. spontanea Serebr.
13. Cannabis sativa L. subsp. spontanea Serebrjakova -> Cannabis sativa L. subsp. spontanea Serebr.
14. Cannabis sativa L. var. afghanica hort. ->  ?
15. Cannabis sativa L. var. indica Lam. -> Cannabis sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) E. Small & Cronquist
16. Cannabis sativa L. var. kafiristanica ( Vavilov ) E.Small & A.Cronquist -> Cannabis sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) E.Small & Cronquist var. kafiristanica (Vavilov) E.Small & Cronquist
17. Cannabis sativa L. var. spontanea Vavilov -> Cannabis sativa L. subsp. spontanea Serebr.^[2]

Cannabis has shown three distinct landrace "land-race" ^[3] known as Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica and Cannabis ruderalis that are geographically isolated.^[4] Botanists, especially cannabis specialists, breeders and seed breeders, often refer to these three cannabis landrace as separate species or subspecies types ^[5]. Whether the different strains of Cannabis constitute a single species (Cannabis sativa L.) or multiple species has been a contentious issue for well over two centuries.^[6][7][8][9]

It is traditionally (albeit contentiously) divided into at least five subspecies, indica/sativa, pure indica, pure sativa, mostly sativa and mostly indica, each found as a cultivar and a wild variety.^[10]Cannabis sativa male plants show evidence of selection for traits that enhance fiber production and seed-oil (for fuel) but the female plant produce seeds (for food) and flower buds that can be used as a psychoactive substance because it has higher levels of the psychoactive delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), whereas Cannabis indica was primarily selected for drug production and has relatively higher levels of cannabidiol (CBD) and Cannabinol (CBN) than THC.

Botanists Richard E. Schultes and Loran Anderson also conducted taxonomic studies of Cannabis, and concluded that sufficient evidence exists to support recognition of three species, Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica Lam., and Cannabis ruderalis.^[11][12] According to their species descriptions, C. sativa is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, Cannabis indica is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and Cannabis ruderalis is short, branchless, and grows wild in central Asia. This concept was embraced by cannabis afficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" drug strains from wide-leafed "indica" drug strains.

A recent study of genetic variation in Cannabis supports recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species, although the existence of a third species, C. ruderalis, is less certain. This study assigned hemp (fiber/seed) landraces and feral populations from Europe, central Asia, and Asia Minor to C. sativa. Cannabis indica includes both narrow-leafed drug (NLD) and wide-leafed drug (WLD) strains, as well as southern and eastern Asian hemp strains and feral Himalayan populations^[13].

In 2005 a DNA study of the variation in Cannabis according to the DNA in their mitochondria and chloroplasts was conducted. The results showed three distinct "races" of cannabis, including the newly discovered Cannabis rasta. In central Asia the THC-rich indica predominated, while in western Europe sativa was more common. In India, south-east Asia, Africa, Mexico and Jamaica the rasta variant predominated. It looks similar to the sativa subspecies, but generally contains higher levels of THC NewScientist.

Some authors now refer to C. indica as the subspecies Cannabis sativa subsp. indica and C. ruderalis as the variety Cannabis sativa var. ruderalis reflecting the fact they may not be distinct enough to be classified as separate species. Several other botanical names have also been applied. IPNI

There may be political pressures to maintain that "all" Cannabis is designated Cannabis sativa L. for the purposes of avoiding challenges to current laws in various countries.^[14]

Cannabis is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Ghost Moth and The Nutmeg.

Reproduction

Cannabis has two known forms of plant sexuality, dioecious and hermaphroditic or monoecious.^[15] The reproductive structures of Cannabis are flowers. Cannabis has imperfect (or unisexual) flowers; the male (stamenate) reproductive structures are completely separate from the female (carpellate, sometimes called pistillate) structures. ^[16]

Many populations have been described as sexually labile. ^{[17] [18]}

Most varieties of Cannabis are Short day plants, with the exception of C. ruderalis which is commonly described as "auto-flowering" and may be either day-neutral or require long days.

All varieties of cannabis are wind-pollinated. ^[19]

Cannabis has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of sex determination in the plant kingdom.^[20] Many models have been proposed to explain sex determination in Cannabis.

Based on studies of sex reversal in hemp, it was first reported in 1924 by K. Hirata that an XY sex-determination system is present.^[17] At the time, the XY system was the only known system of sex determination. The X:A system was first described in Drosophila spp in 1925.^[21] Soon thereafter, Schaffner disputed Hirata's interpretation,^[22] and published results from his own studies of sex reversal in hemp, concluding that an X:A system was in use and that futhermore sex was strongly influenced by environmental conditions.^[18]

Since then, many different types of sex determination system have been discovered, particularly in plants.^[23] Dioecy is relatively uncommon in the plant kingdom, and a very low percentage of dioecious plant species have been determined to use the XY system. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently.^[24]

Since the 1920's, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for Cannabis, as partially reviewed by Robert A. Nelson.^[25]. Ainsworth^[23] describes sex determinion in the genus as using "an X/autosome dosage-type."

The question of whether sex chromosomes are indeed present would be most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a karyotype. Cannabis was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped, however, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards (see History of Cytogenetics). In Hemp Husbandry, Nelson refers to a "crude map of the cannabis chromosomes," but according to other researchers no modern karyotype of Cannabis had been published as of 1996.^[26] Proponents of the X/Y system refer to chromosome maps and that the Y chromosome is slightly larger than the X chromosome, but that it is difficult to tell the difference.^{citation needed]}

Most recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors^[27][28] have used RAPD to isolate several genetic marker sequences that they name Male-Associated DNA in Cannabis (MADc), and which they interpret as indirect evidence of a male chromosome. Subsequently, another research group^[29] has identified additional MADc sequences using RAPD.

A well known Cannabis seed company has published information on the web suggesting that sex determination in Cannabis is strongly influenced by environmental conditions. It has been reported that sex can be reversed in Cannabis using chemical treatment.^[30] Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species.^[31]

Aspects of cannabis production and use

• Medical cannabis discusses its use as a medication.
• Cannabis (drug) discusses its use as a recreational drug.
• Spiritual use of cannabis discusses sacramental and religious use.
• Hemp discusses its uses as a source of housing, oil, food, fibers, and industrial materials.

Etymology

The plant name cannabis is probably of Semitic origin, possibly Hebrew.

Hebrew קְנֵה בֹּשֶׂם qěnēh bośem > קַנַּבּוֹס qannabbôs > Greek κανναβις kannabis > Latin cannabis > English

However, the earlier Sumerian language used the word "kanubi", which means 'cane of two (sexes?)'. This is possibly the source for the Semitic usage.

The Biblical Hebrew term qěnēh bośem, literally "reed of balm", probably ^[32] refers to cannabis according to some etymologists ^[33], but is more commonly thought to be lemon grass, calamus , or even sweet cane, due to widespread translation issues. ^[34] The Hebrew Bible mentions it in Exodus 30:23 where God commands Moses to make a holy oil of myrrh, cinnamon, qěnēh bośem and cassia to anoint the Ark of the Covenant and the Tabernacle (and thus God's Temple in Jerusalem). Notably, this anointing oil is a special herbal formula that functions as a kind of polish and fragrance for the Ark and Tabernacle, and the Bible forbids its manufacture and use to anoint people (Exodus 30:31-33) with the exception of the Aaronic priesthood (Exodus 30:30)

Elsewhere, the Hebrew Bible simply uses "reed" qānēh as the name of a plant in four places whose context seems to mean "reed of balm" as a fragrant resin, Isaiah 43:24, Jeremiah 6:20, Ezekiel 27:19 and Song of Songs 4:14. The Hebrew name "reed of balm" comes from qěnēh (the noun construct form of qāneh) means a "reed" or "cane" and bośem means "balm" or "aromatic" resin. Hebrew may have adapted the name qannabbôs from "reed of balm" qěnēh bośem as a substitute for the ambiguous name "reed".

This Biblical Hebrew term is often mistranslated as "calamus", also called "lemon grass" (Cymbopogon citratus) or "sweet flag" (Acorus calamus), following an ancient misunderstanding in the Greek Septuagint translation. The Hebrew Bible was written across centuries well up to the 5th Century BCE. However, centuries later, by the time the Septuagint was written around the 2nd Century BCE, the archaic Hebrew word qěnēh bośem appears to have already abbreviated into the later Hebrew form qannabbôs, which is attested in Post Biblical Hebrew literature. Thus, the Septuagint did not recognize the Hebrew expression "reed of balm" and mistook it to refer to some unidentified plant. As a dynamic equivalent, the Septuagint rendered it as "calamus" (Greek kalamos), which indeed is a "balmy" (scented) reed. The calamus plant was known in Greek mythology and processed into an aphrodisiac.

Unambiguous Hebrew or Aramaic references to cannabis are rare and obscure. Syriac has qanpa (a loan from kannabis) and tanuma (see the Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon.) but neither is found in the Peshitta, the Syriac Bible. Late Syriac Ahiqar texts include qanpa as "ropes of hemp" (tunbei de-qanpa). The Hebrew word qanbes, a loan word from kannabis, is used in the Mishnah as hemp [Kilaim 2:5; 5:8; 9:1,7; Negaim 11:2] in the sense of a constituent of clothing or other items.

The Scythian term cannabis probably derives from a Semitic origin as well. Sara Benetowa of the Institute of Anthropological Sciences in Warsaw is quoted in the Book of Grass as saying:

The astonishing resemblance between the Semitic kanbos and the Scythian cannabis lead me to suppose that the Scythian word was of Semitic origin. These etymological discussions run parallel to arguments drawn from history. The Iranian Scythians were probably related to the Medes, who were neighbors of the Semites and could easily have assimilated the word for hemp. The Semites could also have spread the word during their migrations through Asia Minor.

Likely, the name 'cannabis' was known from the Semitic merchants who sold this commodity throughtout the ancient trade routes of Southeast Asia.

Comparing the English word hemp and the Greek word kannabis shows that the word came down from the presumed Proto-Indo-European language. Words like kanapish for "hemp" occur in some Finno-Ugrian languages. It is likely that, soon after agriculture started, hemp as a cultivated plant spread widely, carrying its name with it. Source of Rus. konoplja, Pers. kanab, Lith. kanapes "hemp," and Eng. canvas and hemp.

References

1. ^ Greg Green. 2005. The Cannabis Breeder’s Bible. Green Candy Press 14
2. ^ Greg Green. 2005. The Cannabis Breeder’s Bible. Green Candy Press 15-17
3. ^ The art of selection and breeding fine quality cannabis by DJ Short, Cannabis Culture Magazine, CC41 http://cannabisculture.com/articles/2788.html, 07 Mar, 2003 http://cannabisculture.com/articles/2788.html
4. ^ Karl W. Hillig and Paul G. Mahlberg ‘A chemotaxonomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in Cannabis (Cannabaceae)’ http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/91/6/966
5. ^ Indica vs Sativa, http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_info6.shtml
6. ^ Small, E., and A. Cronquist. 1976. A practical and natural taxonomy for Cannabis. Taxon 25: 405–435.
7. ^ Emboden, W. A. 1981. The genus Cannabis and the correct use of taxonomic categories. J. Psychoactive Drugs 13: 15–21.
8. ^ Schultes, R. E., and A. Hofmann. 1980. Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens. C. C. Thomas, Springfield, IL., pp. 82–116.
9. ^ On Toadstool Soup and Legal Species of Marihuana, Ernest Small. PLANT SCIENCE BULLETIN, September 1975, A Publication of the Botanical Society of America, Inc. Vol. 21 No. 3 http://www.botany.org/PlantScienceBulletin/psb-1975-21-3.php
10. ^ Greg Green. 2005. The Cannabis Breeder’s Bible. Green Candy Press 14
11. ^ Schultes, R. E., et. al. 1974. Cannabis: an example of taxonomic neglect. Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets 23: 337–367.
12. ^ Anderson, L. C. 1974. A study of systematic wood anatomy in Cannabis. Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets 24: 29–36.
13. ^ Hillig, K.W. 2005. Genetic evidence for speciation in Cannabis (Cannabaceae). Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 52: 161-180.
14. ^ Small, Ernest - American law and the species problem in Cannabis: Science and semantics 1975 http://www.unodc.org/unodc/bulletin/bulletin_1975-01-01_3_page002.html
15. ^ Greg Green. 2003. The Cannabis Grow Bible. Green Candy Press 99-110
16. ^ Lebel-Hardenack, Grant (1997). "Genetics of sex determination in flowering plants". Trends in Plant Science 2 (4): 130–136.
17. ^ ^a b Hirata, K (1924). "Sex reversal in hemp". Journal of the Society of Agriculture and Forestry 16: 145-168.
18. ^ ^a b Schaffner, JH (1931). "The Fluctuation Curve of Sex Reversal in Staminate Hemp Plants Induced by Photoperiodicity". American Journal of Botany 18 (6): 424-430.
19. ^ Clarke, Robert Connell (December 1991). Marijuana Botany, 2, Ronin Publishing. ISBN 091417178X.
20. ^ Truta, E, Gille E, Toth E, Maniu M (2002). "Biochemical differences in Cannabis sativa L. depending on sexual phenotype". Journal of Applied Genetics 43 (4): 451-462. Retrieved on September 3 2006.
21. ^ Bridges, CB (1925). "Sex in relation to chromosomes and genes". American Naturalist 59: 127-137.
22. ^ Schaffner, JH (1929). "Heredity and Sex". The Ohio Journal of Science 29 (1): 289-300.
23. ^ ^a b Ainsworth, Charles (2000). "Boys and Girls Come Out to Play: The Molecular Biology of Dioecious Plants". Annals of Botany 86: 211-221. Retrieved on September 5, 2006.
24. ^ Negrutiu, Vyskot B, Barbacar N, Georgiev S, Moneger F (2001). "Dioecious plants. A key to the early events of sex chromosome evolution". Plant Physiology 127 (4): 418-24.
25. ^ Nelson, RA (1999). Hemp Husbandry. Rex Research. ISBN 0-913073-00-8. Retrieved on 05 October 2006.
26. ^ Hong, Shao, Robert C. Clarke. "Taxonomic studies of Cannabis in China". Journal of the International Hemp Association 3 (2): 55-60.
27. ^ Sakamoto, K, Shimomura K, Komeda Y, Kamada H, Satoh S (1995 Dec). "A male-associated DNA sequence in a dioecious plant, Cannabis sativa L.". Plant & Cell Physiology 36 (8): 1959-54.
28. ^ Sakamoto, K, Abe T, Matsuyama T, Yoshida S, Ohmido N, Fukui K, Satoh S (2005). "RAPD markers encoding retrotransposable elements are linked to the male sex in Cannabis sativa L". Genome 48 (5): 931-936.
29. ^ Törjék, O, Bucherna N., Kiss E., Homoki H., Finta-Korpelová Z., Bócsa I., Nagy I., Heszky L.E. (2002). "Novel male specific molecular markers (MADC5, MADC6) for sex identification in hemp". Euphytica 127: 209-218.
30. ^ Mohan Ram, H.Y, R. Sett (1982). "Induction of fertile male flowers in genetically female Cannabis sativa plants by silver nitrate and silver thiosulfate anionic complex". Theor. Appl. Genet. 62: 369–375.
31. ^ Tanurdzic, M, Banks JA (2004). "Sex-determining mechanisms in land plants". Plant Cell 16 (Suppl): S61-71.
32. ^ Weston La Barre. 1980. Hebrew University. Israel
33. ^ Sula Benet . 1936. Institute of Anthropological Sciences. Warsaw
34. ^ Immanuel Löw. 1925. Flora der Juden. 1924-1934, reprinted 1967

Further reading

• Cannabis: A History (2005) Martin Booth ISBN 0-312-32220-8

• UNODC: World Drug Report 2006, Chapter 2: Cannnabis: Why Should We Care? (2006)

External links

• Dopefiend.co.uk - A Podcast network of downloadable audio shows devoted to all aspects of cannabis, from news to stories and grow info
• Strain's Bible - A list about the different cannabis strains that exist, with grower reports and photos
• Society of Studies about Ethnobotany and the Modified States of Conciousness